Panel Report, Swansea 2009 - THERAVADA BUDDHISM AND CULTURE OF THE TAI OF THE SHAN STATES AND SOUTH-WEST CHINA Convenor: Susan Conway (SOAS)

This panel focused on Shan culture as manifested in certain Theravada Buddhist ritual practices, spirit rites, architecture, language and poetry. It is part of an ongoing programme supported by the British Academy through ASEASUK, and the MacArthur Foundation. The panel was honoured by the presence of Abbot Venerable Khammai Dhammasami PhD, from the Buddhist monastery in Oxford, spiritual leader of the people of Burma living in the UK. The participants welcomed his contribution and comments during the discussions.  

The session began with a paper by Clemens Karlsson (Swedish National Defence College and the Swedish Institute of International Affairs) highlighting the ethnic-religious identity of the Tai Khoen (Khun) group of Shan from the Eastern Shan states. While Buddhism is considered to be a global, transnational and universally accessible movement, it contains many different sangha groups under a number of national governments. There is an apparent tension between global Buddhism with a universalistic vision, and national Buddhism with ethnic and nationalistic tendencies. The Tai Khun have an ethno-political identity as Shan, and an ethno-religious identity as Theravada Buddhists. Their religious culture, language and script are closely connected with neighbouring Lan Na (northern Thailand) and with northern Laos and Sipsongbanna, Southwest China. This paper focused on Tai Khun forms of monastic architecture, temple mural paintings and sculpture in comparison with Lan Na, Laos and Sipsong Pan Na. The way religion is expressed in the visual culture of the people demonstrates its role as a marker of ethnicity. It proves that local cultural customs linked to ethnic identity are incorporated within Theravada Buddhist tradition.

The paper by Susan Conway (Department of Languages and Cultures, SOAS) examined mystical formulae produced in written and illustrative form by monks, and lay ritual experts, shaman and healers. The formulae are based on a fusion of indigenous spirit religion, Chinese astrology, numerology and Hindu and Theravada Buddhist cosmologies. The aim is to create positive power (good fortune) and to protect against negative power (bad luck). In the Shan States these formulae were developed in scripts, numbers, cabalistic diagrams and illustrations. The scripts comprise indigenous languages and Pali, Burmese, Khmer and Central Thai. The numbers are calculations of cosmological force and expressions of Theravada Buddhist lore. As presented in Shan manuscripts, there are three main elements. The first is the yantra usually represented in illustrative form to represent a celestial body, or a god or goddess, a mythological human or an animal, accompanied by one or more cabalistic diagrams. The second element is a gatha an incantation specifically formulated to empower the yantra. The third is the written instructions that state how, when and where the yantra and gatha should be activated. These elements together present a unique Shan world view. 

The Venerable Sengpan Pannyavamsa (Oxford Buddhist vihara) presented primary results in research on the Tham Vessantara-Jataka (Th. VJ ). His focus was on twenty-six parts of the story. In the eastern Shan State city of Keng Tung this story has developed in a unique form. The Th. VJ encompasses the Vessantara-Jataka, the story of Prince Vessantara who gives away everything he owns, including his wife and children, thereby displaying the virtue of perfect charity. The work also includes parts of the Tipitaka (Pali canon), including Parami (the culmination of virtue), the Ubhassa, Lokavutti, Suttanta (discourses of the Buddha), Abhidhamma (philosophy) and Pathama Malai, Phra Malai Kao (the story of the monk Phra Malai).  The first section of the Phra Malai text explains his visit to hell where he witnesses human torture as punishment for past evil deeds. In the eighth section Dutiya Malai, Phra Malai Pai, the monk visits the heavens and then returns to earth, to describe what he has seen. The texts emphasise the benefits to be gained from sponsoring and attending the reading of the whole text that extend over two days. The length of time taken to complete the reading has made the cost of sponsorship beyond the means of most Shan. More recently there has been a change in emphasis in the texts to stress the benefits of sponsoring individual chapters rather than the whole story, enabling the less well off to participate in this important form of merit making.

Jotika Khur-Yearn ((SOAS,) presented a paper entitled Preservation and Continuation of Shan Poetic Literature Among Shan Communities of Thai-Burma Borders on behalf of himself and Dr. Kate Crosby (SOAS) who was unable to attend the conference. In the summer of 2009, a SOAS based research group carried out fieldwork to analyse a set of Shan manuscripts (lik-luong). For centuries the tradition of sponsoring manuscripts has been an important custom among the Shan. The texts encompass Theravada Buddhist ritual practices, romantic and heroic literature, poetry and historical chronicles. This project focused on Shan literary and ritual culture across the Burma-Thai border. The researchers were interested in how lik luong, material has been preserved and whether the education of the recitation specialists (tsale), is continuing. Since very little work has been done to document the range of lik luong, they concentrated on Shan temples from different regions. The first temple, Wat Tiyasathan, Mae Taeng near the city of Chiang Mai was established by Shan traders a hundred years ago. It has one of the richest collections of Shan lik luong. The second, in Maehongson province is Wat Pang Mu. This temple has a well-preserved collection of around one thousand manuscripts of lik luong. The third Shan temple is Wat Jong Klang also in Maehongson Province. It has its own well-arranged museum. Although the catalogues are still being processed, we can confirm that there is a vast collection of lik luong literature. At Wat Tiyasathan, out of three hundred manuscripts, only two contained duplicate texts. The variety of texts, the lengthy introductions about the sponsors and the recitation specialists (tsale) connected with each copy makes them key to further understanding of the history and development of Shan literary and ritual practices.